Fabrication of water-stable soy protein isolate (SPI)/ carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) scaffold sourced from oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) for bone tissue engineering
Document Type
Article
Publication Date
2-1-2025
Abstract
Low structural integrity in hydrophilic polymers poses a significant challenge for bone tissue engineering (BTE) as these scaffolds are prone to premature collapse, potentially impeding bone regeneration. Additionally, there is a scarcity of research on sustainable approaches in bone scaffold fabrication, warranting further exploration given their biocompatibility. This study addresses these issues by fabricating water-stable, glutaraldehyde (GA) crosslinked soy protein isolate (SPI)/carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) porous scaffolds using oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) waste as the starting material. The scaffolds were prepared through blending, crosslinking, and freeze-drying processes, followed by several characterisation experiments to assess morphology, porosity, mechanical properties, and degradation rate. The results showed that the SPI/CMC scaffolds exhibited a rough surface morphology with an average pore size ranging from 65 +/- 13 mu m to 99 +/- 8 mu m. The porosity of the SPI/ CMC-based scaffolds was higher than that of the SPI-based scaffolds, though the increased porosity led to a lower Young's modulus. A decrease in Young's modulus was observed with increasing CMC content, attributed to the inefficiency of SPI-GA crosslinking. The scaffolds demonstrated a slow degradation profile over 35 days of incubation in simulated body fluid (SBF), indicating their potential to retain structural integrity over extended periods. Additionally, a fluctuating weight change due to calcium phosphate deposition suggested the bioactive properties of the scaffolds. In vitro studies revealed that these waste-derived scaffolds supported and maintained cellular proliferation of human fetal osteoblast (hFOB) cells, with good cell attachment observed, highlighting their potential for BTE applications. This study demonstrates that the SPI/CMC scaffold with GA crosslinking effectively provides structural stability in aqueous environments and can be further improved as one of the potential candidates for the BTE scaffold.
Keywords
Bone tissue engineering, Carboxymethyl cellulose, Glutaraldehyde, Oil palm empty fruit bunch, Soy protein isolate, Structural integrity
Divisions
fac_eng,biomedengine,sch_che
Funders
Universiti Malaya Impact Oriented Inter-disciplinary Research Grant (IIRG) Programme (IIRG001A-2021IISS)
Publication Title
Industrial Crops and Products
Volume
224
Publisher
Elsevier
Publisher Location
RADARWEG 29, 1043 NX AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS